Dyslexia

[Detomah]

1. Introduction.
People with dyslexia can have enormous difficulties in making sense of reading, writing and spelling.

Nowadays there is much that can be done. Dyslexia is a recognised condition and, if identified early, people can generally be helped to find ways to cope with their problems and acquire the skills we all need to reach our potential.

This site aims to raise awareness about dyslexia. It discusses possible causes of the condition. It provides practical advice to enable people to recognise dyslexia and suggests ways to deal with problems before school, at school and later in life. It also includes a comprehensive resource section with details of the many organisations which offer help, as well as lists of further reading and websites.

A dyslexia friendly site.
Some dyslexic people experience visual discomfort when they read. Experts have produced design guidelines to alleviate these problems and make reading materials more accessible to dyslexic readers. This website has been designed to be as user friendly as possible. It has the following features.

• Some dyslexic people can read more easily when there is less glare and find different coloured text and backgrounds can make a great difference. On this module the background colour can be changed to suit individual readers.
• A large simple type face has been used.
• The text has been well spaced with extra space given after each paragraph, around headings and in any lists.
• Links to other sections have been given at the end of each section — again well spaced.
• Sentence structure has been kept as simple as possible.
• Full stops have been put at the end of headings. This is an aid for people using speech software. The software will recognise this text as a heading.
  The text can be printed out easily.

2. What is dyslexia?
Dyslexia causes difficulties in quite specific areas of learning. It usually affects reading, writing and spelling, but can also influence mathematical skills. The condition is hard to define precisely because dyslexia often overlaps with other types of specific learning difficulties which can also affect spoken language and motor skills.

However, there are typical symptoms which should alert parents, teachers and others to the possibility that a child, or indeed an adult, has dyslexia. These are discussed in the sections How to recognise dyslexia in children and Dyslexia in adults.

Until recently the causes of dyslexia were not understood. However, it is now generally accepted that dyslexic people seem to process information in a different way from the rest of the population (For more information, go to Scientific findings.)

3. Who is dyslexic?
This is hard to answer because definitions of dyslexia vary and the difficulties associated with the condition range from mild, to moderate, to severe. It is not easy to determine the cut-off points (particularly the one between the mildly dyslexic and the rest of the population) nor come up with any agreed estimate of how many 'count' as having the condition.

Some studies have been carried out which estimate the number of people with dyslexia. But they give varying figures and do not use a standardised test to assess the condition. Reviewers looking at these studies find much to question and certainly there is as yet no reliable figure for the incidence of dyslexia in the UK or in other countries.

One large-scale study in the UK by Professor Tim Miles in 1980 concluded that 2—4% of 10 year olds had serious dyslexia. Many experts agree a further 6% have milder dyslexic difficulties.

A survey in Connecticut, begun in 1983 and still on-going, suggests that 20% of the American population (adults and children) might have a degree of dyslexia on a spectrum from very severe to very mild, with 4% classified as being severely dyslexic.

The frustration many dyslexic people experience when they don't understand their difficulties or get help may lead to truanting and becoming involved in crime.

Studies have looked at prison populations. A Texas study in 1998 which looked at inmates who were English speaking and mentally and physically fit, concluded that just under 30% were dyslexic.

An on-going study, also started in 1998, at Pentonville Prison in the UK, suggests that 33% of the inmates who have problems with literacy are dyslexic. A recent survey in 1999 at Polmont Young Offenders Institute in Scotland put the incidence of dyslexia at 50%.

Is it genetic?
Dyslexia does appear to run in some families. Researchers have discovered families in which reading difficulties have spanned several generations. It is likely that there is a genetic component which makes some family members prone to the condition. Recent research has focused on chromosome 6, but the specific genetic link has not been conclusively identified.

Whether or not there is an obvious family history, it is important to identify whether dyslexia is the reason any individual may be having difficulties.

Oliver's story.
'I'm now 37 and I run my own business making medical models mainly for the fields of orthopaedics and cardiology. It's a business I've built up myself over the last five years, starting in a garden shed and working up and up with new innovations. It's just grown and grown.
'When I was seven I was at a rather posh prep school where it became increasingly obvious that I didn't fit in. I couldn't really read, and they used to send me out of Latin lessons to set the tables for lunch. Unfortunately I couldn't even do that. I set everything the wrong way round.

'My mother eventually realised that something was wrong and I was sent off for all sorts of tests. I think I can remember them using the word "dyslexia" but that didn't mean much. I was eventually sent to the local primary school and the family paid for a tutor at home. I don't think anyone suggested any help at school. I got by with the other boys because I was good at football.

'At secondary school I didn't want to stand out from everyone else so the tutoring stopped and, of course, everything just got worse. I hated school and left at 16 with one O level in geography. My poor parents simply didn't know what to do with me.

'In the end I went off to France for a year to work as an assistant shepherd, though it was more sheep-dog than shepherd really. But it changed my life. I'd found something I could do. I got very fit. There was a gorgeous French girl. I suddenly found some self-esteem.

'I've worked ever since, first for a small firm which grew very big and eventually bored me. And then in my own business. I'm just pleased that at last dyslexia is becoming better understood so children will be helped earlier.'

Does it affect both sexes equally?
According to the British Dyslexia Association about three times as many boys as girls are diagnosed as dyslexic in British schools. Professor Miles' study in 1980 and other studies have reported similar figures.

However the Connecticut survey suggested that dyslexia among girls may be seriously underestimated and that the condition may affect boys and girls equally. Differences in these figures may be attributed to how broadly dyslexia is defined in individual surveys.

Is it connected to class or intelligence?
Dyslexia sometimes used to be dismissed as a 'middle-class disease'. Teachers who did not understand the condition believed that it was being used as an excuse by middle class parents who could not accept that their children were slow learners.

However, it is becoming clear that dyslexia is widespread and occurs across the whole range of the population. The Connecticut survey supports this view and suggests that the condition is found equally among people of all social classes and abilities. It may simply be easier to recognise in a child who in other ways seems to be making good progress than in one who is generally a slow learner or where there may be lower expectations because of social background.

The vast majority of people with dyslexia can lead perfectly normal lives if they are given the help they need. The disability is so common that most of us probably live and work with dyslexic people without realising anything is wrong.

Dyslexia does not affect intelligence and dyslexic people can be successful in any area of life, often excelling in the visual arts, music and the theatre.

Alexander Faludy, at 15 the youngest person to be accepted by Cambridge University in the 20th century, is dyslexic. He has all his books read on to audiotape and dictates his essays. Albert Einstein, Leonardo da Vinci, Winston Churchill, Richard Branson and footballer Dennis Bergkamp are just a few of the famous people who are (or were) dyslexic.

4. Scientific findings.
Our brains are pre-programmed to learn to speak. Children also have a natural urge to communicate. Small babies hear the sounds that make up the word 'mama' and copy them instinctively.

Unfortunately, there is no such instinctive way of learning to read, nor is reading necessarily a pleasurable activity. To read the word 'mama', a child has to understand that it is made up of two sounds, 'm' and 'a', represented by letters, repeated twice.

The sounds which go to make up a language (there are 44 in English) are called phonemes. There is some debate about the best way for children to start reading. But there is little dispute that to become fluent readers children need to be able to connect the sounds they hear to the written letters which make up the words on the page. Children who are dyslexic have persistent difficulty in making that connection.

There is no absolute scientific consensus about the causes of these difficulties. However, convincing international evidence has demonstrated that there are important links between phonological skills (the expertise needed to process sounds), literacy progress and dyslexia. Inadequate phonological processing abilities affect the acquisition of phonic skills which are needed for reading and spelling. It also means that unfamiliar words are often misread which may also affect comprehension.

Some researchers have suggested that there is a link between the poor language processing skills of dyslexic children and their sense of balance, which might explain why some children with dyslexia are also clumsy and poor at sport.

Brain scans.
Exciting modern scanning techniques have revealed unusual patterns in the brain function of dyslexic people. This vital evidence shows dyslexia is an identifiable, neurological condition. It can now be established which parts of the brain are operating differently.

It is hoped that further research will not only provide an accurate diagnosis of dyslexia but also suggest ways to help dyslexic people cope with their problems and improve their skills.

Some researchers, particularly in America, suggest that brain scans show that dyslexic children can't process the phonological sounds they hear fast enough.

Psychological testing.
Working in another area, psychologists are also providing interesting findings. Research has shown a marked inefficiency in the working of short-term memory in many dyslexic people.

Many experts agree that this is a fundamental underlying problem for people with the condition. It may result in difficulties in retaining the meaning of text, disjointed written work or a tendency to miss out words and phrases because the person has simply 'lost track' of what he or she was trying to express.

Visual difficulties.
For many years it was thought that dyslexia was essentially a visual problem and various methods of 'eye-training' were used to try to help children read. It is now accepted that the disability is not as simple as that, although visual difficulties can be a factor.

Some researchers suggest that brain scans show that a proportion of dyslexic people have difficulties in the fast processing of detailed visual information.

Certainly, many dyslexic readers experience visual discomfort and are hypersensitive to the effects of strong visual contrast, such as black text on a white page or rapid flicker from parallel lines of text. These problems may, in some cases, be alleviated by coloured overlays or spectacles.

5. Dyslexia and the education system.
Before it was established that dyslexia was a distinct disability with identifiable features, many children and young people struggled through the education system without help. Some became convinced at an early age that they were failures.

In some cases their frustration led to more serious emotional problems or behavioural difficulties. Alienation and disillusionment could follow, sometimes leading to truancy and crime. Certainly the figures given for illiteracy and dyslexia in the surveys of prison populations suggest that unaddressed learning difficulties may contribute to offending behaviour.

Some children's problems may still go unacknowledged, but a greater recognition of specific learning difficulties means that access to additional help is now more readily available in mainstream education.

All children with dyslexia can benefit if their disability is identified early and appropriate help with reading and writing is provided.

Many mildly dyslexic young people find strategies to help them with their difficulties and cope well. For others, dyslexia becomes more of a problem as they progress through school.

Dyslexia is a life-long condition and people at the severe end of the spectrum are likely to need specialist help on a long-term basis as education throws up new challenges.

Dyslexia is one of the specific learning difficulties which may entitle a child to a Statement of special educational needs if the problem is sufficiently serious. (For further discussion about Special Educational Needs, see the section Does your child need special help? and the feature when a child has special educational needs in the children room of the health house.)

A positive approach to dyslexia.
'I run a primary school in Maidenhead for 230 children, aged 5-11. I took the job after a year's research on how mainstream schools can help dyslexic children. My aim is to make life as normal for them as possible.
'We start by asking parents if there are any spelling difficulties in the family. Then we watch our rising-fives very closely from the moment they arrive. We put them through a programme of activities and games designed to help us identify children with a range of problems with literacy, numeracy and physical activities.

'We introduce all the children to a multi-sensory programme of learning letters and sounds. They all learn the same way because this is a good approach for all children. The children who are not dyslexic learn more quickly but the dyslexic children don't lose self-esteem by being singled out for special treatment.

'All the children start learning spellings from Year 1. We ask parents to help with this. And we use a range of 15 to 20 reading schemes to suit individual children's learning styles. They do a sequential programme of word-building and phonics which we had in place long before the National Literacy Strategy.

'We also allocate part of our budget to enable us to have an assistant in every class so that children can be helped in small groups. By the time they leave us the dyslexic children should be able to cope in a secondary school that is also sympathetic to their needs.'

Elizabeth Henderson, headmistress

Recognising problems.
Now that more is understood about the phonological explanations of dyslexia, researchers are turning their minds to consider the most effective methods of identifying learners with these language difficulties. They are also evaluating teaching methods which will enable dyslexic children to acquire reading and writing skills.

The importance of noticing early which children may have difficulties is universally accepted. Teachers can use the literacy curriculum and, in particular, the targets set out by the National Literacy Strategy, to identify children who are failing to make expected progress.

There are also several diagnostic tests available which help identify children needing additional help. Some of these can be used to screen entire classes of four or five year olds. Others are designed to be used with individual children, either by a teacher or educational psychologist.

Getting help.
The majority of teachers in primary and secondary schools are aware of dyslexia and are adjusting their teaching to meet the needs of these learners.

Examination boards, colleges and universities are also playing their part by making special arrangements for some students with dyslexia (see External tests and examinations).

The voluntary sector also offers support and advice to parents, teachers and adults who suspect that their own difficulties may be caused by undiagnosed dyslexia. (For details of organisations, see Finding out more.)

There are government initiatives to encourage local education authorities (LEAs) to develop policies to identify and tackle dyslexia.

Staff development programmes for teachers and work on classroom materials, including computer software, indicate that dyslexia is becoming more recognised in the education system. In some LEAs considerable help is offered to dyslexic children in mainstream education. In other authorities progress is slower.

The City and County of Swansea, for example, asks schools to sign up to 'dyslexia friendly status'. It organises awareness training for all teachers and learning support assistants and for every school to have a specialist dyslexic teacher. Although Swansea has gone the furthest in involving all schools under its authority, many other local authorities have also organised specialist training courses and set up dyslexia units in some of their schools.

6. How to recognise dyslexia in children.
First of all, it is important to exclude a range of other reasons why a child is having great difficulty in learning to read and write. These include poor eyesight, hearing difficulties, absence from school through ill health, inadequate or very interrupted schooling or emotional stress at home.

Hearing problems are particularly important. Many young children suffer ear infections and for a minority this is followed by a condition called glue ear. This can significantly reduce a child's hearing ability for a time.

Researchers have found that if children suffer from this condition around the age of two (when they are acquiring spoken language very rapidly) or around five (when they are beginning to learn the skills needed for reading), they are more likely to experience difficulties in learning to read. If they are dyslexic, these difficulties will certainly compound the problem.

Once these reasons have been ruled out, most experts would agree that there are signs even before children start school which indicate that they might be dyslexic. However, young children develop at different rates and it is important to remember this and allow for normal variation.

It is useful to question whether there is a history of reading or spelling difficulties in the family, although a family history does not mean that every child in the family will have dyslexia.

Parents who are concerned should also be aware of other problems that may arise. Some dyslexic children have difficulties finding the appropriate words to express themselves and may be slow to process information. Many such children may become isolated socially and find friendships difficult.

Other children may have motor difficulties. If they are generally clumsy or bad at sport they are often teased and excluded from playground games. Bullying can then be a problem.

It's always worth remembering that suitable help from a young age may prevent children from falling behind.

Other pointers are included in the checklists below.

Experts disagree about which are the most important. However, the following are generally accepted as causes of concern.

Pre-school.
Does your child:

• have a relatively short attention span?
  
• find it hard to remember nursery rhymes and rhyming words, like 'cat' and 'hat'?
  
• find it difficult to do 'odd one out' games with words?
  
• show little interest in words and letters even if he or she enjoys stories?
  
• mix up directional words like 'up' and 'down', 'in' and 'out'?
  
• have difficulty putting objects into a sequence, such as coloured beads?
  
• jumble up letters or whole words in speech, such as saying 'beddy tear' for 'teddy bear'?
  
• have difficulties with physical skills like catching, throwing and kicking a ball, skipping, hopping, jumping and balancing?

At primary school.
Watch out for a child who:

• is doing much less well than expected
  
• has marked and persistent difficulties with reading and spelling
  
• enjoys the content of stories and information read to him or her, but when attempting to read, over-uses the content to 'guess' at words
  
• writes letters and/or numbers the wrong way round
  
• takes a long time to complete any written work
  
• leaves letters out of words or puts them in the wrong order
  
• has difficulty remembering times tables or the alphabet, or putting things like the days of the week in order
  
• needs to use fingers or written marks to do simple calculations when other children are easily able to do them in their heads
  
• confuses left and right
  
• appears careless and inattentive
  
• has unusual difficulties in dressing or tying shoe-laces.

At secondary school.
Is he or she:

• still reading unusually slowly or inaccurately?
• still having marked difficulties with spelling and legible handwriting?
• confusing places, times and dates?
• needing to have instructions and telephone numbers, etc, repeated?
• finding great difficulty in planning work and writing essays?
• taking much longer than other pupils over written assignments?
• having problems with note taking?
• producing disappointing results in exams?
• working inconsistently with marked 'on' and 'off' days?

7. Dyslexia in adults.
The diagnosis of dyslexia has been a hit-and-miss affair in the past. There are many adults with dyslexia who read and write far less well than they should. They probably feel disappointed and inadequate and may blame themselves unnecessarily.

It is important to stress that it is never too late to get help. The first thing is to identify the problem.

A checklist for adults.
Answer 'yes' or 'no' to each question.

• Do you find it hard to follow a detailed discussion?
• Do you take much longer than most people to read a page in a book?
• Do you find it hard to work out sums in your head?
• Do you find it hard to get started on any written work?
• Is your spelling poor?
• When you have to say a long word, do you frequently find it difficult to get the sounds in the right order?
• Do you find it more difficult to fill in forms than others do?
• Do you frequently mix up bus numbers like 85 and 58?
• When you use the telephone, do you often make
  mistakes in dialling?
• Do you have more difficulty than others in taking and passing on phone messages?
• Do you frequently mix up dates and times and miss appointments?

If you answer 'yes' to many of these questions, and in particular those to do with reading and spelling, you may be dyslexic. You may feel angry that this wasn't recognised before or relieved that your difficulties may be linked to an identified condition and are not your fault.

If you wish to seek further advice, you can contact the Adult Dyslexia Centre, the Adult Dyslexia Organisation or the British Dyslexia Association.

If you are studying in further or higher education, or thinking of studying, your college or university should have a learning support team which can help you. A national working party has published extensive guidelines, Dyslexia in Higher Education. These are available from the University of Hull.

8. How to help.

The pre-school child.
You may suspect your child has dyslexia even before he or she starts school. Your family may have a history of reading or spelling difficulties or your child may already show some of the signs listed earlier. If so, there are things you can do at home to help.

Essentially these activities are all to do with overcoming the particular problems of a dyslexic child. But if your fears are unfounded and your child is not dyslexic, these tips won't do any harm. They will help all children with their reading and writing. It is also worth remembering that all the activities are intended to be fun.

• Spend time just talking to your child. One-to-one time with a sympathetic adult gives children space to practise listening skills and express themselves freely.
• Nursery rhymes are an excellent way of helping children understand rhythm and rhyme which are both essential for literacy. Songs are useful too, especially those which involve sequences, like 'Ten Green Bottles' or 'The Twelve Days of Christmas'.
• It helps if you can read lots of stories and poems to your child or if he or she has the chance to listen to stories read by other people — perhaps at story-telling sessions at your local library.
• Talk about stories you remember. Ask your child to tell the story back to you. The more fun you have with books and stories the better. Try to encourage the child through positive praise to concentrate for longer and longer periods.
• Listening skills and following instructions are important. Play games like 'I Spy' to encourage children to listen carefully to what they are told and to distinguish the sounds in letters. You can make the games more sophisticated as children get older.
• Memory games are helpful, both those involving listening, such as 'My Grandmother Went to Market', and vision, such as trying to remember an increasing number of objects on a tray.
• Dominoes help with numbers and matching. Use picture cards first and then move on to normal dominoes.
• Try to play lots of games which involve physical skills, such as playing with a ball, skipping, hopping and jumping. Keep these at a simple level and praise children for what they can do and for every improvement they make.

The primary school child.
Keep up all the activities you have been doing at home before your child started school. This is the stage when dyslexic difficulties should also be noticed at school and a partnership between parents and teachers is the best way forward to provide additional help.

• Do not hesitate to raise your concerns with your child's class teacher and find out what arrangements the school makes to help dyslexic children.
• Stay closely in touch with the class teacher as your child moves up the school and ask what you can do at home to help.
• Try to help your child to enjoy the content of stories and information books by reading as much as possible to your child when he or she can just relax and listen. Friends or other family members may be able to help here. Use taped stories too. Some children also enjoy recording their own ideas on tape. It may encourage your child if someone could find the time to transcribe the content.
• Computers, if appropriately used, can be helpful in developing reading, spelling and number skills. Talk to your child's teacher about the possibilities of getting access to a computer, perhaps during or after school hours. It may be worth considering borrowing or buying one.
• Some dyslexic children find day-to-day organisation difficult, so make sure that you establish good routines for getting to school. Help them select the appropriate clothes and books. Plan homework or reading practice. For example, it may be helpful to colour code books for different subjects so that they can be easily identified.
• See if your child finds it easier to read through coloured filters. Try different coloured plastic folders from a stationery shop. If your child says this helps, for example, the letters or lines stop moving around, try to find glasses with coloured lenses. Your school or optometrist may be able to help.
• Recognise that your child may be very tired after school and allow time for him or her to unwind and relax.
• Boost your child's confidence as much as you can. When necessary, and with your child's agreement, tell people what the problem is. This may be particularly important if your child is joining in group activities outside school.
• Try to praise effort and good work and avoid criticism.
• Join your local dyslexia association or other relevant organisation for information and contacts (see Finding out more).

Does your child need special help?
Dyslexia varies in its severity and persistence from one child to another. Most children can be helped within mainstream education. Only a minority of children who have severe difficulties will need to go through the process of obtaining a Statement of Special Educational Need — about 3% of the school population in all.

When a family believes a child has special educational needs of any kind, they have a right to raise the matter with the school. Schools are expected to investigate parents' concerns in the same way as teachers' concerns.

The school may already be adjusting the way it teaches a particular child. For example, it may give work at a more basic level or use teaching methods that suit the child's learning style. This is called 'differentiation' and is not considered special educational provision.

If a child is not making adequate progress despite differentiation, the school may agree to provide help at the levels of School Action or School Action Plus. Most dyslexic children will receive this level of help.

In a small percentage of cases this help will not be enough, and the local education authority (LEA) will need to make a statutory assessment and draw up a Statement for the child.

Until recently all special educational help came under a five stage process and you may find your school still uses stages 1 to 3 to describe extra help at School Action and School Action Plus. Children do not have to start at School Action and work up — they should start with the level of help which meets their needs. The help can go up or down depending on their progress.

Parents have the right to ask the LEA for a statutory assessment (formerly stage 4) and a statement (formerly stage 5) if they feel school help is not enough.

If parents feel they are not getting a sympathetic response from their child's school they should contact their LEA themselves. The Advisory Centre of Education or the British Dyslexia Association can advise on how to take matters further. See Organisations for details.

School Action.
The school will collect information about the child and speak with parents. If they decide that a child needs more support, they will decide what help to give and usually record this in an individual education plan (IEP). At this level the child will get help that is extra or different from the help that the school usually provides. The child's progress should be checked regularly and parents kept fully informed.

School Action Plus.
If your child is making little or no progress in specific areas despite the help at School Action, external specialists, such as an educational psychologist and advisory teachers, will be consulted and may assess your child. They should, with your child's teachers, look at different ways of supporting your child. The specialists will advise on a new IEP with new targets and help.

They may decide with the school's special educational needs co-ordinator (SENCO) to request further advice from external professionals, but this shouldn't hold up the extra help.

Statutory assessment.
Some children will continue to have difficulties despite the school's best efforts and may show significant cause for concern. This should trigger a request to the LEA for a statutory assessment. This is a more detailed process than any assessments under School Action and will involve a number of professionals, including an educational psychologist, the child's headteacher, and contributions from medical and social services where appropriate.

The LEA will ask the school for details of the help they have provided so far and will want to look at the child's individual education plans. They will ask parents for their views of the child's difficulties. In many cases they will only agree to undertake a statutory assessment if they feel that the school has done everything it can within its resources and/or there is a need to learn more about the child's difficulties in order to determine what help is needed.

Parents have the right of appeal if the LEA decides not to assess whether they or the school made the request. If the LEA decides to assess it will use the reports from the professionals and parents to decide whether to write a Statement.

Parents can appeal if the LEA decides not to draw up a Statement.

Statements.
If the LEA decides a Statement is necessary, they will describe all the child's needs and spell out the provision to match those needs. A Statement is a legal document so the educational help it sets out must legally be given by the school.

It is important, therefore, that the wording in the Statement is very specific about the help so there is no room for doubt. As well as saying a child what type of extra the child will receive, the Statement should normally say how much help and when it will be given. If parents are unhappy with the LEA's view of the child's needs or help as set out in the Statement, or think it is unclear, they can appeal.

This is a complex area and parents are advised to take advice from specialist voluntary organisations. Go to Finding out more for full details of organisations, further reading and websites that can offer help and information.

The secondary school child.
When a child transfers to secondary school the curriculum is divided more clearly into subject lessons. It now becomes clear what dyslexic pupils can do well and what is difficult. The basic skills are important for most subjects, but those which involve creative, technical, problem-solving and reasoning skills often allow many dyslexic children to shine.

Many secondary schools will continue to provide the support a dyslexic child needs with reading and writing and encourage excellence in other areas. But parents still need to keep in close contact with school and provide support at home.

The checklist below may provide a few useful points for parents to bear in mind as their children progress through school and generally become more independent. Older students may also like to take an active part in getting help and use these lists to talk things over with their parents and teachers.

• Dyslexic students are under constant pressure and may find life more tiring than their peers. Regular mealtimes and reasonably early nights during the week may make school life easier. It can be useful to discuss these points openly and sympathetically with young people.
• A quiet place to work is particularly important for dyslexic students. Schools sometimes have homework clubs or other facilities for pupils who find it hard to work at home.
• Children will need particular help with study skills and preparation for tests and examinations. Schools can usually offer specific help with these skills, such as checking over work, finding key points in a text, making notes and dealing with spelling problems.
• Schools should also have a policy on marking the work of dyslexic children which takes account of their difficulties with spelling and handwriting.
• Specialist words (for instance, in science) may cause particular problems. Staff should be aware of these difficulties and provide lists of specialist vocabulary for dyslexic children.
• New technology, such as word-processors and spellcheckers, can make a crucial difference to dyslexic children. Talk to staff about opportunities to use school computers. It may also be well worth considering borrowing or buying one.
• Discuss with the school whether some of the following methods could be used for class tests and end-of-year examinations:

• questions read aloud and answered orally
• questions read aloud for a written answer
• questions recorded on a tape recorder with headphones
• answers dictated on to a dictaphone or tape recorder
• questions recorded on a speech-reactive computer programme, and the answers typed.

9. External tests and examinations.
The public examination bodies are generally sympathetic to the needs of dyslexic pupils but obtaining permission for special arrangements to be made may take time. Parents and teachers should discuss the child's needs early, generally at the beginning of the school year in which the test or examination will be taken.

National tests.
The Quality and Curriculum Authority (QCA), which organises the national tests (often known as SATs) for 7- , 11- and 14- year-olds allows special arrangements for children with special educational needs.

This includes children with Statements, those undergoing statutory assessment and those being helped at School Action or School Action Plus levels. Children who cannot sit and work at a test for a sustained period because of a disability or emotional, social or behavioural difficulties may also need special arrangements.

Some special arrangements, such as extra time, require permission of the QCA, but schools do not require permission for most other arrangements such as using coloured overlays, or taping versions of written tests.

Some children performing well below the expected level for their age are only assessed by teachers and do not take the tests.

The arrangements for both tests and teacher assessments may be modified, or disapplied altogether, for a few children under legal procedures covering modification or disapplication of the National Curriculum.

For those children with a Statement, any different arrangements will normally be written into the Statement. For those without a Statement, the headteacher may decide to disapply aspects of the National Curriculum which include the tests, either because the pupil is undergoing statutory assessment or because other circumstances make it impossible for them to take the tests.

Parents can appeal to the governing body against a decision to disapply. They can also ask the head for a disapplication and if this is turned down, they can appeal against that decision. If the governing body turn down their appeal, they can complain to the LEA.

GCSE and A levels.
Special arrangements may be made for pupils with specific learning difficulties, including dyslexia. The school's headteacher must support a request for special arrangements and the decision will be taken by the examination board concerned for each subject.

It is not necessary to have a Statement of SEN to qualify for special arrangements nor does a Statement automatically qualify an individual for any concessions. Any request must be supported by evidence, such as a recent assessment report from a qualified specialist teacher or psychologist.

Typically, dyslexic candidates may be given extra time for coursework or written papers, be permitted a reader for examination papers and a typewriter or word-processor — though not a spellchecker — for written answers. If candidates are exempted from the assessments of handwriting, spelling, punctuation and grammar, this will be indicated on their certificate.

Further and higher education.
Further education colleges have always attracted dyslexic students because they specialise in practical, technical and creative courses where the condition is often not such a problem. Some of these courses lead on to further study at university level.

College and university students with dyslexia may find that they are eligible for the Disabled Students' Allowance which is designed to help cover extra costs, such as a personal computer.

Many universities are adjusting to the admission of dyslexic students. They should ask what special arrangements are made for people with their disability when applying to university.

They should look for:

• special arrangements for coursework or examinations
• support with study skills
• computer access.

10. The way forward.
It is now understood that dyslexia is a specific learning difficulty which primarily affects learning to read, write and spell, although it can also include mathematical skills.

At a time when the government is committed to making sure that all children learn to read and write effectively at school, it is more important than ever that children with dyslexia have their difficulties diagnosed early so that they do not fall behind in school.

There is sufficient experience and expertise available to identify children with specific learning difficulties. Suitable teaching materials and programmes have been developed to help children with dyslexia at all levels of severity.

Training courses exist for teachers who wish to learn more about this specific learning difficulty and how to handle it in the classroom.

It is vital to ensure that children and adults with dyslexic difficulties are not left behind. Experts in the field believe the following steps are essential if children and adults with dyslexia are to realise their full potential. They urge all concerned to work towards their implementation.

• Increased awareness so that parents as well as teachers can recognise those children at risk.
• Pre-school activities that enable children to develop their listening and language skills.
• Early identification of difficulties in nursery and primary schools.
• Provision of appropriate help for dyslexic pupils and students throughout their education.
• Teaching methods that provide a sufficiently thorough and logical approach to ensure that reading skills based on language development are acquired and remembered by the learner.
• Training for teachers to meet the needs of children and young people with dyslexic-type difficulties.
• Awareness among employers of the ways in which individual members of staff might be affected by dyslexia and a positive approach to enable them to make a full contribution in the workplace.
• Access for dyslexic adults to appropriate assessment and help at any stage in their lives, including those in prison.
• Screening for dyslexia as soon as young people get into trouble at school or with the law.

11. Finding out more.
This website contains links to other websites which are not under the control of and are not maintained by Total Format. Total Format is not responsible for the content of these sites and does not necessarily endorse the material on them.

Organisations.
Adult Dyslexia Centre
1-7 Woburn Walk
London WC1H 0JJ
Enquiries: 020 7388 8744
E-mail: dyslexia@adsdc.freeserve.co.uk

Provides assessment, counselling, tuition and training for dyslexic adults and children.


Adult Dyslexia Organisation
Helpline: 020 7924 9559 (Tues-Thurs 10.30am-4.30pm)
E-mail: dyslexia.hq@dial.pipex.com
Website: www.adult-dyslexia.org


An organisation run by dyslexics for adult dyslexics and anyone concerned with dyslexia. Offers a helpline, information, support, counselling, advice on how to get an assessment and specialist tuition. Also gives talks, conferences and seminars, policy development and training for professionals.

Advisory Centre for Education (ACE)
1C Aberdeen Studios
22-24 Highbury Grove
London N5 2DQ
Admin: 020 7704 3370
Advice line: 0808 800 5793 (Mon-Fri 2-5pm)
Website:www.ace-ed.org.uk

General advice agency for parents with particular expertise in the problems of children with SEN. Publisher of quarterly ACE Bulletin and other books and information sheets.

AFASIC (Unlocking Speech and Language)
50-52 Great Sutton Street
London EC1V 0DJ
Tel: 020 7490 9410
Helpline: 0845 355 5577 (Mon-Fri 10.30am-2.30pm)
E-mail: info@afasic.org.uk
Website: www.afasic.org.uk

Charity offering children and young adults support with speech, language and communication impairments. A recognised training provider – they offer a range of services that include a helpline, publications, support groups, and membership.

ASLTIP (Association of Speech and Language Therapists in Independent Practice)
Coleheath Bottom
Speen
Princes Risborough HP27 0SZ
Tel: 0870 241 3357 (answerphone)
E-mail: asltip@awdry.demon.co.uk
Website: www.asltip.co.uk

Provides information on speech and language therapists in the UK and offers support to those practising. The website has a database of therapists and you can write or call to request a list of those working in your area.

British Association of Behavioural Optometrists (BABO)
c/o Christine Hancock – Membership Secretary
Greygarth
Littleworth
Winchcombe
Cheltenham GL54 5BT
Tel: 02920 228144 (general enquiries)
E-mail: achildopt@aol.com
Website: www.babo.co.uk

Offers information on visual perception and eye motion difficulties as well as vision therapy. Provides a list of accredited behavioural optometrists throughout the UK.


British Dyslexia Association (BDA)
98 London Road
Reading RG1 5AU
Tel: 0118 966 2677 (admin)
Helpline: 0118 966 8271 (Mon-Wed, Fri 10am-12.45pm and 2-4.45pm)
E-mail: helpline@bdadyslexia.org.uk
Website: www.bdadyslexia.org.uk

The main British organisation offering advice to dyslexic people, their families, teachers and other carers. It supports almost 100 local associations and helplines. Publishes factsheets and books on dyslexia and related conditions.

British Psychological Society
St Andrews House
48 Princess Road East
Leicester LE1 7DR
Tel: 0116 254 9568
E-mail: enquiry@bps.org.uk
Website: www.bps.org.uk

Offers some general advice and lists psychologists in its Directory of Chartered Psychologists, available in most reference libraries. The directory can also be accessed on their website.

Centre for Language in Primary Education
Webber Street
London SE1 8QW
Tel: 020 7401 3382/3
Website: www.clpe.co.uk

A national organisation which advises teachers about many aspects of literacy in primary education. Produces publications, including Literacy in Practice: A parent's guide, and a series of videos.

The Dyslexia Institute
Park House
Wick Road
Egham TW20 OHH
Tel: 01784 463 851
E-mail: info@dyslexia-inst.org.uk
Website: www.dyslexia-inst.org.uk

A major independent organiser of teacher training courses on dyslexia and provider of professional advice, assessment and consultancy. Also conducts research and information on dyslexia. Their website provides information on psychological assessment, teaching, training, advice and information services. They also provide a list of graded reading books, which can be downloaded in pdf format, alphabetically by book title or sorted by grade.

Dyslexia Association of Ireland
E-mail: info@dyslexia.ie
Website: www.dyslexia.ie

With 39 branches across Ireland, DAI provides information, parent support groups and after school workshops for children. The website has loads of useful information.

Dyslexia in Scotland
E-mail: info@dyslexia-in-scotland.org
Website: www.dyslexia-in-scotland.org

Raises awareness of dyslexia in Scotland. Offers advice to people with dyslexia and to professionals in the field.

Educational Advisory Service
Noweth Cottage
New Road
Tregony
Truro TR2 5RY
Tel: 01872 530544
E-mail: henry@edadvisory.fsbusiness.co.uk
Website: www.dyslexiaeas.co.uk

Offers information and help on dyslexia and specific learning difficulties.


Helen Arkell Dyslexia Centre
Frensham
Farnham GU10 3BW
Tel: 01252 792 400
E-mail: general_enquiries@arkellcentre.org.uk
Website: www.arkellcentre.org.uk

Provides a range of services for dyslexics, their parents and teachers, including information and advice, assessment, tuition, speech and language therapy and counselling, plus free initial consultancy. Also provides extensive teacher training programmes.

I CAN
4 Dyer's Building
Holborn
London EC1N 2QP
Tel: 0845 225 4071
Website: www.ican.org.uk

Charity that runs two special schools that offer intensive support for pupils aged 4-19 with communication difficulties. Also provides outreach to mainstream schools, facilitates academic research and provides an assessment service for Local Authorities.

Independent Panel for Special Education Advice (IPSEA)
6 Carlow Mews
Woodbridge IP12 1EA
Tel/Fax: 01394 380 518
Helpline: 0800 018 4016 (Mon-Thurs 10am-4pm and 7-9pm; Fri 10am-1pm)
Helpline Scotland: 0131 454 0096/ 0144
Helpline Northern Ireland: 02890 705654
Website: www.ipsea.org.uk

Offers free independent advice on the duties of local education authorities, and free professional second opinions on the education of children with special needs. Will advise and represent parents at the SEN tribunal, if appropriate.

The Institute of Optometry
56-62 Newington Causeway
London SE1 6DS
Tel: 020 7407 4183 (Mon-Thurs 9am-9pm; Fri 9am-5pm)
E-mail: admin@ioo.org.uk
Website: www.ioo.org.uk

A recognised centre of excellence for vision care. It is open to everyone, regardless of their visual needs and is well known for its children's eye care especially where learning difficulties are related to visual complications, and regular clinics are held for people with specific learning difficulties.

NAPLIC (National Association of Professional concerned with Language Impairment in Children)
37 King Edward Avenue
Hastings TN34 2NG
E-mail: deirdre.goodger@naplic.org.uk
Website: www.naplic.org.uk

Established national organisation for teachers, speech and language therapists and other professionals, to promote and increase the awareness and understanding of children and young people with speech, language and communication needs. Write to or e-mail the above membership secretary for more info.

National Association for Special Educational Needs (NASEN)
4-5 Amber Business Village
Amber Close
Aminington
Tamworth B77 4RP
Tel: 01827 311 500
E-mail: welcome@nasen.org.uk
Website: www.nasen.org.uk

A national organisation, mainly for teachers. Promotes the development of children and young people with SEN and supports those who work with them.

SKILL (the National Bureau for Students with Disabilities)
4th Floor
Chapter House
18-20 Crucifix Lane
London SE1 3JW
Tel: 020 7450 0620
Helpline: 0800 328 5050 (Mon-Thurs 1.30-4.30pm)
Minicom: 0800 068 2422
E-mail: info@skill.org.uk
Website: www.skill.org.uk

Concerned with developing opportunities for further and higher education, training and employment for young people with special education and training needs. Send SAE for publications and information.

Talking Point
4 Dyers Buildings
London EC1N 2QP
Tel: 0207 674 2799
E-mail: info@talkingpoint.org.uk
Website: www.talkingpoint.org.uk

Offers information about speech, language and communication difficulties in children. The site is divided into sections for parents, and professionals and has an FAQ section, a directory of resources and organisations, news and articles.

Computer aids for dyslexia.

The British Dyslexia Association (BDA) produces a series of booklets on the subject which include the following titles:

Dyslexia – Successful Inclusion in Secondary School
Multilingualism, Literacy and Dyslexia

There are also sophisticated packages for both diagnostic and remedial purposes, all of which require the skills of a person trained in their use. Amongst those available are:

COPS (Cognitive Profiling System) for the assessment of dyslexia and Special Educational Needs for age 4-8 years. Useful ability profiling for all children.

LASS (Lucid Assessment Systems for Schools) for the assessment of dyslexia and Special Educational Needs. Useful ability profiling and monitoring for all children aged 8-15 years. Measures cognitive, literacy and intellectual abilities and provides multi function assessment for all children.

LADS (Lucid Adult Dyslexia Screening) The unique screening system for dyslexia, age 16+. Dyslexia sensitive cognitive tests, ideal for colleges, universities, adult literacy centres, etc.

All are available from:

Lucid Research
3 Spencer Street
Beverley HU17 9EG
Tel: 01482 882121
Website: www.lucid-research.com

Lexia Learning Systems produces Orton-Gillingham based skills testing software as well as phonics based reading aids. Available from:

Lexia UK Teesside Educational Support Services
The Post Office
Horsehouse
North Yorkshire DL8 4TS
Tel: 01969 640 364
E-mail: info@readingsoftware.com
Website: www.readingsoftware.com

Pico Educational Systems Limited produces The StudyScan Suite, primarily designed for use in higher and further education. Part One, QuickScan, is a short computer test to identify learning styles and dyslexia. Part Two, StudyScan, takes a deeper look at learning strengths and weaknesses. The programmes were designed to support and not replace human contact in the assessment and counselling process.

Further information available from:

Pico Educational Systems Limited
11 Steep Hill
London SW16 1UL
E-mail: studyscan@zyworld.com (e-mail for an evaluation copy of the full programme.)
Website: www.studyscan.com

Websites.
See also the websites listed under many of the individual organisations whose details are given above.

Curriculum, Evaluation and Management Centre – News
www.cemcentre.org/news/default.asp
Research centre that provides indicator systems that are confidential to schools and colleges. This page is a really good place to find out about current issues in education, including the debates on 'dyslexia'.

Dyslexics
www.dyslexics.org.uk
Non-commercial site that has some useful information about the different ways we learn to read – plus a good links section and a page devoted to dyslexia myths.

Dispatches: The dyslexia myth
http://www.channel4.com/news/microsi.../dyslexia.html
Find out why this programme caused so much controversy when it aired in September 2005 and read what the producer had to say.

International Dyslexia Association
www.interdys.org
A US-based site offering news on research, legal and legislative developments with an imaginative Kids Only site.

The Reading Reform Foundation
www.rrf.org.uk
Looks at the history of teaching reading and the current failure of the National Literacy Strategy.

Sound Linkage – Centre for Reading and Language
www.york.ac.uk/res/crl/soundLinkage.html
'Sound Linkage' was developed by Peter Hatcher and is a phonological awareness training programme.

StudyScan
www.studyscan.com
Provides detailed information on a programme package developed primarily to identify dyslexia among students in higher and further education. The site also provides background information on the development of the programme and includes links to sites visited during the research phase of its development.

Teach a Child to Read
www.succeedtoread.com
This US site has lots of useful information and encourages parents to spend time reading with their children.

World Dyslexia Network Foundation
http://web.ukonline.co.uk/wdnf
Research based site with a particular interest in dyslexia in a multi-lingual and multi-cultural context.

Books and information for parents and students.

Dyslexia: A multi-disciplinary approach edited by Patience Thomson and Peter Gilchrist (Editors) (Chapman and Hall, 1996) Useful book which includes a chapter on orthoptics.

Dyslexia: A parents' and teachers' guide by T Payne and E Turner (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1999) A practical guide to the educational problems encountered by children experiencing specific learning difficulties.

Dyslexia: a parent's survival guide by Christine Ostler (Ammonite Books, 1999) Sound, practical advice for parents.

How to Detect and Manage Dyslexia: A reference and resource manual by Philomena Ott (Heinemann, 1997) Comprehensive, easily accessible guide to all aspects of dyslexia.

Books and information for teachers and professionals.

Beginning to Read: Thinking and learning about print by M J Adams (MIT Press, 1994) Discusses the knowledge and process involved in skilful reading, the issues surrounding their acquisition and the implications for reading instruction.

Day to Day Dyslexia in the Classroom by Joy Pollock and Elisabeth Waller (Routledge, 2004) Sound, practical advice for teachers.

Dyslexia: A hundred years on by TR and E Miles (Open University Press, 1999) An overview of research, assessment, teaching approaches and counselling.

Dyslexia: A parents' and teachers' guide by T Payne and E Turner (Clevedon: Multilingual Matters, 1999) A practical guide to the educational problems encountered by children experiencing specific learning difficulties.

Dyslexia: A practitioner's handbook by Gavin Reid (John Wiley & Sons, 2003) This practical guide will help professionals and parents to make an informed choice in the selection of materials, and provides a choice of strategies for classroom use for teachers.

Dyslexia and English by Elizabeth Turner and Jayne Pughe (David Fulton, 2004) This book examines the difficulties dyslexic students experience in the English classroom and shows how these difficulties may best be supported and the students' strengths utilised.

Helping Children with Reading and Spelling: A special needs manual by Rea Reason and Rene Boote (Routledge, 1994) This book provides teaching suggestions to help children who struggle with learning to read and spell. It is intended as a basic kit for class teachers and collects in one place enough ideas to enable teachers and parents to give each child appropriate help.

Interactive Literacy: Using ICT to advance literacy skills by Trevor Millum (Barrington Stoke, 2005) A guide for teachers written by a member of the Executive Board of the National Literacy Association.

Specific Learning Difficulties (Dyslexia): Challenges and responses by Peter Pumfrey and Rea Reason (Routledge, 1991) Brings together research about the educational, psychological and medical aspects of dyslexia.